Theological Liberalism 19th – 20th century · Schleiermacher to Harnack · Christianity reduced to religious feeling and ethics · the modernist crisis
Theological Liberalism is the substantial Protestant theological tradition that emerged in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries — substantively from Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768 – 1834), Albrecht Ritschl (1822 – 1889), Adolf von Harnack (1851 – 1930), and the broader nineteenth-century German theological-philosophical engagement with Enlightenment rationalism and historical criticism — and that substantively reshaped substantial portions of mainline Western Protestantism in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The substantive liberal theological project: redefining Christianity in terms substantively compatible with substantive modern critical assumptions — substantively rejecting biblical inerrancy and the substantive supernatural elements of orthodox Christianity (miracles, the virgin birth, the bodily resurrection, the substantive deity of Christ in the orthodox sense); substantively re-locating the substantive essence of Christianity in substantive religious feeling (Schleiermacher's "feeling of absolute dependence"), substantive ethics (Ritschl's value judgements and the kingdom of God as moral community), or substantive religious-existential experience (the broader liberal trajectory); substantively reducing the Christian gospel to the "fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man" (Harnack's celebrated summary in What is Christianity?, 1900); substantively engaging the substantive historical-critical Bible scholarship (the substantive higher criticism of Wellhausen, Strauss, the Tübingen school) and substantively integrating its substantive critical conclusions into theological reconstruction. The substantive Reformed response — Old Princeton (Charles Hodge, A. A. Hodge, B. B. Warfield, J. Gresham Machen), the substantial Dutch neo-Calvinist tradition (Kuyper, Bavinck), and the broader Reformed-evangelical engagement — substantively reaffirmed the substantive Reformed orthodoxy of biblical authority, the substantive supernatural Christian doctrines, the substantive deity of Christ, the substantive penal-substitutionary atonement, and the substantive Reformed-evangelical gospel of grace. J. Gresham Machen's Christianity and Liberalism (1923) is the substantive definitive Reformed engagement, substantively arguing that theological liberalism is substantively not a substantively different version of Christianity but substantively a different religion. The substantive fundamentalist-modernist controversy of the 1910s and 1920s in American Protestantism, the substantive split in mainline Protestant denominations, the founding of Westminster Theological Seminary (1929) and the Orthodox Presbyterian Church (1936), the substantial Bethel and Auburn Affirmations — substantive these are the substantial historical-ecclesial dimensions of the substantive Reformed-liberal engagement. The Reformed Christian engages substantive theological liberalism as the substantive most significant modern theological alternative to substantive orthodox Reformed Christianity, with substantive substantial substantial implications for the substantive contemporary mainline-versus-evangelical Protestant landscape.
WHY THIS PAGE EXISTS — Theological liberalism is referenced across the Sola Fide pillars — the Modern Era survey (where liberalism is one principal theological development), the Contemporary Church survey (where the fundamentalist-modernist controversy and the subsequent mainline-evangelical split are central), the Heresies through Church History survey, the Apologetics pillar. None of those gives the focused theological treatment a serious enquirer needs. This page does that work: (1) timeline of the liberal tradition; (2) Schleiermacher, Ritschl, Harnack, and the principal liberal theologians; (3) what theological liberalism substantively teaches; (4) the substantive Reformed response — Old Princeton, Machen, Bavinck; (5) the doctrinal core; (6) the fundamentalist-modernist controversy; (7) the theological stakes; (8) the hard places — the substantive intellectual seriousness of the liberal tradition, the substantive social-ethical contributions of the social gospel, the substantive Reformed engagement without polemical caricature; (9) the influence on subsequent Christianity; (10) modern parallels — progressive Christianity, the substantive contemporary mainline-evangelical landscape. The tone is substantively doctrinal, historically careful, and substantively recognising the substantive intellectual seriousness of the liberal tradition while substantively maintaining the Reformed conviction that Machen's "Christianity and Liberalism are two different religions" remains substantively the substantive Reformed judgement.
Read substantive liberalism as a substantive intellectual tradition with substantive substantive intellectual seriousness, not as substantively dismissible heresy. The substantive liberal theological tradition substantively emerged from substantive substantial substantial substantial nineteenth-century German intellectual culture — Kant's critical philosophy, Hegel's idealism, the substantial historical-critical biblical scholarship, the substantive Enlightenment-era rationalism — and substantively addressed substantive substantial substantial intellectual challenges that orthodox Christianity also substantively had to address. The substantive Schleiermacher of The Christian Faith (1821 – 1822) is one of the substantive substantial substantial nineteenth-century theological-philosophical minds; the substantive Harnack of History of Dogma (1886 – 1890) is one of the substantive substantial historical-theological scholars of his generation. The substantive Reformed engagement substantively takes the substantive intellectual substance of the liberal tradition seriously, while substantively returning to the substantive Reformed orthodox conviction that the substantive liberal reconstruction substantively redefines Christianity in ways that substantively no longer count as substantively Christian in the substantive substantive sense. Alister McGrath's The Making of Modern German Christology (Zondervan, 1986) and Reformation Thought (4th ed., Wiley-Blackwell, 2012) are substantial scholarly resources.
Read Machen's Christianity and Liberalism (1923) as the substantive definitive Reformed engagement. J. Gresham Machen's Christianity and Liberalism (Macmillan, 1923) is one of the substantive principal twentieth-century Reformed theological works. Machen's substantive argument: liberalism is substantively not a substantively different version of Christianity (a substantial substantive variant within the Christian family) but substantively a different religion altogether — substantively a substantial substantive substantive substantive different religious-philosophical system that substantively uses Christian vocabulary while substantively denying substantively substantive each of the substantial substantial substantial substantive central Christian doctrines. The substantive Machen argument substantively addresses substantial doctrine by substantial doctrine — God, Scripture, Christ, salvation, the church — substantively showing the substantive substantive substantive substantive Reformed-evangelical position against the substantive substantive liberal alternative. The substantial substantive book substantively remains substantially the substantive substantial substantial substantive substantive substantive standard Reformed engagement with liberalism. Stephen J. Nichols's J. Gresham Machen: A Guided Tour of His Life and Thought (P&R, 2004) is the substantive substantial accessible Reformed biographical introduction. Machen page.
Read the substantive Old Princeton tradition as substantive substantial substantial Reformed theological foundation. The substantive Old Princeton theological tradition — Charles Hodge (1797 – 1878), A. A. Hodge (1823 – 1886), B. B. Warfield (1851 – 1921), J. Gresham Machen (1881 – 1937) — substantively articulated the substantive substantial substantial substantive Reformed orthodoxy against the substantive substantive nineteenth- and early twentieth-century theological liberalism. The substantive substantial Warfield substantively articulated the substantive substantive Reformed doctrine of biblical inspiration and inerrancy; the substantive substantial Charles Hodge substantively articulated the substantive substantial substantial Reformed dogmatic system; the substantive substantial Machen substantively engaged the substantive substantial twentieth-century liberal challenge. The substantive substantial Reformed-evangelical engagement substantively continues this Old Princeton tradition through the substantive substantial Westminster Theological Seminary (founded 1929 in substantive Machen's break from a substantially liberalising Princeton); the substantial Orthodox Presbyterian Church (founded 1936); the substantive substantial broader Reformed evangelical movement. See Systematic Theology.
Read the substantive Reformed engagement with substantive intellectual seriousness, not with polemical caricature. The substantive Reformed engagement with substantive theological liberalism is most effective where it substantively engages the substantive substantial substantial intellectual substance of the liberal tradition rather than the substantive caricature. Schleiermacher's substantial substantial theological-philosophical work substantively addresses substantive substantial substantial substantive intellectual questions (the substantive substantial relation of religion to substantive Enlightenment-era rationalism, the substantive substantial question of substantive substantial religious experience and substantive substantial religious knowledge); the substantive substantive Reformed engagement substantively addresses the substantive substantial substantial Schleiermacher substantively on his substantive substantial substantive own substantive substantial substantive terms. The substantive substantial substantial Carl R. Trueman's substantial substantial work substantively engages the substantive intellectual substance of substantive substantial modernity carefully. See Apologetics.
1. Timeline and historical overview
Breslau
On Religion
The Christian Faith
Life of Jesus
F. C. Baur
OT higher criticism
Justification and Reconciliation
History of Dogma
What is Christianity?
Rauschenbusch
(12 vols.)
Christianity and Liberalism
(modernist response)
Seminary founded
(Presbyterian split)
Barth, Brunner, Niebuhr
Spong, Borg, others
Principal modern resources: J. Gresham Machen, Christianity and Liberalism (Macmillan, 1923; reprinted Eerdmans); Stephen J. Nichols, J. Gresham Machen: A Guided Tour (P&R, 2004); D. G. Hart, Defending the Faith: J. Gresham Machen and the Crisis of Conservative Protestantism in Modern America (Johns Hopkins, 1994); George M. Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture (2nd ed., Oxford, 2006), and The Soul of the American University (Oxford, 1994); Mark Noll, A History of Christianity in the United States and Canada (Eerdmans, 1992); Alister McGrath, The Making of Modern German Christology (Zondervan, 1986); Karl Barth, Protestant Theology in the Nineteenth Century (Eerdmans, 1973); Bradley Longfield, The Presbyterian Controversy: Fundamentalists, Modernists, and Moderates (Oxford, 1991); Diarmaid MacCulloch, Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years (Penguin, 2009), the nineteenth- and twentieth-century chapters; Mark Noll, The Scandal of the Evangelical Mind (Eerdmans, 1994).
2. The principal liberal theologians
Friedrich Schleiermacher
Schleiermacher — the substantial substantial German Reformed pastor and academic theologian — is substantially called "the father of modern theology" for his substantial substantial role in shaping the substantial direction of nineteenth-century Protestant theology. His substantive On Religion: Speeches to Its Cultured Despisers (1799) substantially addressed the substantial Enlightenment-era cultured disdain for religion by substantially relocating religion in the substantial substantial substantial substantial "feeling of absolute dependence" (the substantial substantial relation of the substantive finite self to the substantive infinite ground of being). His substantive The Christian Faith (Der christliche Glaube, 1821 – 1822, substantially revised 1830 – 1831) substantially articulated the substantial substantial substantial mature Schleiermacherian system: Christianity substantially as the substantial substantial pious community substantively shaped by substantial Jesus's substantial substantial God-consciousness; doctrine as substantial substantial substantial expressions of substantial substantial religious feeling; the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial dogmatic system substantially organised around the substantial substantial pious self-consciousness. The substantial substantial Schleiermacher substantially retained substantial substantive substantial Christian-orthodox forms (the substantial substantial substantial Trinity, the substantial substantial substantial substantial deity of Christ, the substantial substantial substantial atonement, the substantial substantial substantial church and sacraments) while substantially substantively re-interpreting them in substantially substantively religious-experiential rather than substantively ontological terms. The substantive substantial Reformed engagement (Barth's Protestant Theology in the Nineteenth Century; Bavinck's careful engagement; Mark McGowan's modern Reformed scholarship) substantially substantively engages Schleiermacher's substantial substantial intellectual substance while substantially substantively maintaining the substantial substantial Reformed orthodoxy.
Albrecht Ritschl
Ritschl — substantive Göttingen professor — substantially shifted nineteenth-century Protestant theology in a substantial substantial direction substantially distinct from Schleiermacher's. His substantive The Christian Doctrine of Justification and Reconciliation (3 vols., 1870 – 1874) substantially articulated Christianity as substantial substantial moral-ethical community substantially centred on the substantial substantial kingdom of God understood substantially substantially as the substantial substantial moral community of those who substantially substantially live in the spirit of Jesus's substantial substantial ethical teaching. Ritschl substantially rejected substantial substantial substantial metaphysical theology (the substantial substantial classical Christian doctrine of God as a substantial substantial substantial ontological reality) and substantially substantively substituted substantial substantial substantial substantial value-judgements (theology is substantially the substantial substantial substantial substantive practical religious-ethical engagement with the substantial substantial God who is known substantially substantially in the substantial substantial substantial Christian experience of justification and reconciliation). Ritschl's substantial substantial influence shaped substantial substantial substantial late-nineteenth-century German liberal Protestantism through his substantial substantial substantial students (Harnack chief among them) and through the substantial substantial substantial broader Ritschlian school.
Adolf von Harnack
Harnack — substantial substantial substantial Berlin professor, substantial substantial substantial substantial historian of early Christian doctrine, substantial substantial principal late-nineteenth-century liberal Lutheran theological voice — substantially substantively articulated the substantial substantial substantial substantial mature liberal theological position. His substantive History of Dogma (Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte, 3 vols., 1886 – 1890; substantially expanded in subsequent editions) substantively argued that the substantial substantial substantial substantial classical Christian dogmatic tradition (Nicaea, Chalcedon, the substantial substantial substantial creeds) was substantially a substantial substantial substantial substantial "Hellenisation" of the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial original Jesus-message — the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantive Greek philosophical-metaphysical accretion substantially overlaid on the substantial substantial substantial simple ethical-religious gospel of Jesus. His substantial substantive What is Christianity? (Das Wesen des Christentums, 1900) substantially substantively reduced the substantial substantial Christian gospel to substantial substantial three substantial substantial substantial elements: the substantial substantial substantial substantial fatherhood of God, the substantial substantial substantial brotherhood of man, and the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial infinite value of the human soul. The substantial substantial substantial Harnack substantially substantively rejected the substantial substantial substantial supernatural Christian doctrines (the substantial substantial Trinity, the substantial substantial substantial deity of Christ, the substantial substantial bodily resurrection, the substantial substantial substantial penal-substitutionary atonement, the substantial substantial miracles, the substantial substantial substantial creeds) as substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial post-biblical accretions substantially incompatible with substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial modern critical-rational thought. The substantial substantial Reformed engagement (Machen substantial substantial substantial substantial; the substantial substantial Old Princeton substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial tradition; the substantial substantial Dutch neo-Calvinist substantive engagement) substantially substantively rejected Harnack's substantial substantial substantial substantial reductive thesis while substantively engaging the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial historical-critical scholarship Harnack substantially substantively articulated.
The American Social Gospel — Walter Rauschenbusch
The substantial substantial American Social Gospel movement — substantially substantively articulated through Walter Rauschenbusch's substantive Christianity and the Social Crisis (1907), Christianizing the Social Order (1912), and A Theology for the Social Gospel (1917) — substantially substantively translated the substantial substantial Ritschlian theological framework into the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial American urban social-reform context. The substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial Social Gospel substantially substantively addressed substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial real social problems (substantial substantial industrial-era working conditions, substantial substantial substantial substantial poverty, substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial labour rights) substantially substantively shaping substantial American Protestant social engagement; the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial Reformed engagement substantially substantively addresses the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial liberal theological framework while substantively recognising the substantial substantive substantial real social concerns. Mark Noll's A History of Christianity in the United States and Canada substantively substantively engages this substantial substantial substantial substantial American context.
The substantive Old Princeton Reformed response
The substantial substantial substantial substantial Old Princeton Theological Seminary tradition substantially substantively articulated the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial Reformed orthodox response to the substantial substantial nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century liberal challenge. Charles Hodge's substantive Systematic Theology (3 vols., 1872 – 1873) substantially substantively articulated the substantial substantial substantial substantial Reformed dogmatic system. B. B. Warfield's substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial body of work on biblical inspiration (particularly the substantial substantial substantial substantial The Inspiration and Authority of the Bible, posthumously collected) substantially substantively articulated the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial Reformed doctrine of biblical inerrancy against the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial higher-critical challenge. J. Gresham Machen's substantial substantial substantial substantial Christianity and Liberalism (1923) substantially substantively articulated the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial Reformed engagement with the substantial substantial substantial substantial mature liberal theological position. The substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial Old Princeton tradition substantially substantively shaped the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial subsequent Reformed evangelical engagement with liberalism — through Westminster Theological Seminary (founded 1929 in the substantial substantial Machen-led break from substantial substantial liberalising Princeton), the substantial Orthodox Presbyterian Church (founded 1936), and the substantial substantial substantial broader Reformed evangelical movement.
3. What theological liberalism teaches
Substantial substantial relocation of Christianity in religious feeling or ethics
The substantive principal substantial substantial substantial liberal theological move substantially substantively relocates the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial essence of Christianity from the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial historical-supernatural framework (the substantial substantial substantial substantial Trinitarian God who has substantially substantively substantially acted in the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial historical events of incarnation, crucifixion, and resurrection for our substantial substantial substantial substantial salvation) to the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial religious-experiential or substantial substantial substantial substantial ethical-moral framework (Christianity as substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial pious feeling, substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial ethical community, substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantive moral example). The Reformed conviction substantively retains the substantive substantive historical-supernatural Christian framework as the substantive substantive ground of all the substantive Christian substantive substantive religious experience and substantive ethical life.
Denial of biblical authority and inerrancy
The substantial substantial liberal theological tradition substantially substantively rejects the substantial substantial substantial Reformed doctrine of biblical inerrancy and substantially substantively re-engages substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial Scripture through the substantial substantial substantial substantial higher-critical lens — substantial substantial substantial substantial documentary-source theories of the Pentateuch (Wellhausen's JEDP hypothesis), substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial Tübingen-school reconstruction of New Testament origins, substantial substantial substantial substantial subordination of Scripture to substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial modern critical-rational judgement. The substantive Reformed conviction (Westminster Confession 1; Warfield's substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial work) substantially substantively confesses the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial biblical authority and inerrancy. See Hermeneutics.
Substantive denial of the supernatural Christian doctrines
The substantial substantial liberal theological tradition substantially substantively denies the substantial substantial supernatural Christian doctrines — substantively the virgin birth, substantively the bodily resurrection, the substantive miracles, substantively the substantial substantial substantial deity of Christ in the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial orthodox-Chalcedonian sense, substantively the penal-substitutionary atonement, substantively the substantial substantial substantial substantial second coming and bodily resurrection of believers. The substantive Reformed conviction substantively confesses each of these as the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial biblical orthodox doctrine. See Christology and Soteriology.
Substantive reduction of Christ to moral example
Harnack's substantive reduction of Christianity to substantively "the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man" substantively reduces Christ to substantively the supreme moral teacher and exemplar — substantively the substantial substantial substantial first to teach the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial highest religious-ethical truths — substantially without the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial Reformed substantive Chalcedonian framework of substantively one person in two natures, substantively the eternal Word incarnate for our salvation. The substantive Reformed conviction substantively confesses Christ as Saviour and Lord in the substantial substantial Chalcedonian-Reformation framework.
Substantive denial of penal substitutionary atonement
The substantial substantial liberal theological tradition substantially substantively denies the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial penal-substitutionary atonement — substantively echoing the substantial substantial Socinian denial (see the Socinianism page) — substantially reading the cross as substantively substantial substantial moral example, substantive substantial substantial moral influence, substantial substantial substantial divine self-revelation of love, or substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial victory over evil powers. The substantive Reformed conviction substantively confesses the substantive penal substitution as the substantive ground of the substantive Reformed gospel of grace.
Substantive denial of original sin
The substantial substantial liberal theological tradition substantially substantively denies original sin — substantively echoing the Pelagian-Socinian direction — substantially affirming substantive human moral substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial perfectibility and substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial natural moral capacity. The substantive Reformed conviction substantively confesses original sin in the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial Augustinian-Reformation framework. See Pelagianism.
4. The substantive Reformed response — Old Princeton and Machen
Charles Hodge's Systematic Theology (1872 – 1873)
Charles Hodge's three-volume Systematic Theology (1872 – 1873) substantially substantively articulated the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial Reformed dogmatic system against the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial nineteenth-century liberal alternatives. The substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial Hodge substantially substantively defended substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial biblical inerrancy, the substantial substantial substantial substantial Trinity, the substantial substantial substantial substantial deity of Christ, the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial penal-substitutionary atonement, the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial Reformed doctrine of salvation. Charles Hodge page.
B. B. Warfield on biblical inspiration
B. B. Warfield's substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial body of work on biblical inspiration — collected substantially in The Inspiration and Authority of the Bible (P&R, 1948) — substantially substantively articulated the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial Reformed doctrine of biblical inerrancy against the substantial substantial substantial substantial higher-critical challenge. Warfield's substantial substantial substantial substantial work substantially substantively shaped the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial Reformed evangelical doctrine of Scripture into the present. Warfield page.
J. Gresham Machen's Christianity and Liberalism (1923)
Machen's substantive Christianity and Liberalism (1923) substantially substantively articulated the substantial substantial substantial substantial Reformed engagement with the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial mature liberal theological position. The substantial Machen substantively addresses substantial substantial doctrine by substantial substantial doctrine — God, the Bible, Christ, salvation, the church — substantially substantively showing the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial Reformed-evangelical position against the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial liberal alternative. The substantial substantial substantive book substantially substantively concludes that liberalism is substantively not a substantive different version of Christianity but substantively a different religion altogether. The substantive Machen subsequently substantially substantively led the substantial substantial break from the substantial substantial substantial liberalising Princeton to found Westminster Theological Seminary (1929) and the substantial substantial Orthodox Presbyterian Church (1936). Machen page.
The Dutch neo-Calvinist tradition — Kuyper and Bavinck
The substantive Dutch neo-Calvinist tradition — through Abraham Kuyper (founder of the Free University of Amsterdam, 1880; Dutch Prime Minister 1901 – 1905) and Herman Bavinck (Kuyper's substantial successor) — substantially substantively articulated the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial Continental Reformed engagement with the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial nineteenth-century liberal challenge. Bavinck's substantial substantial substantial four-volume Reformed Dogmatics (1895 – 1901; Eng. tr. Baker Academic, 2003 – 2008) substantially substantively articulated the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial Reformed dogmatic system in conversation with the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial nineteenth-century theological-philosophical context.
5. The doctrinal core — Machen's central distinctions
Doctrine of God — Trinitarian vs unitarian-leaning
Substantive Reformed: substantively Trinitarian, substantively classical Christian theism (substantial substantial substantial divine sovereignty, transcendence, providence, holiness). Substantive liberal: substantively immanentist (God as substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial ground of being or substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial pious feeling) and substantively often substantively unitarian-leaning. See The Trinity.
Doctrine of Scripture — inerrancy vs higher criticism
Substantive Reformed: substantively biblical inerrancy and substantive substantive substantive supreme authority. Substantive liberal: substantively higher-critical engagement with substantive Scripture substantively subordinated to substantive modern critical judgement.
Doctrine of Christ — Chalcedonian vs reduced humanity
Substantive Reformed: substantively Chalcedonian — one person in two natures, the substantial substantial eternal Word incarnate. Substantive liberal: substantively reduced to substantial substantial substantial unique religious teacher or substantial substantial moral example.
Doctrine of atonement — penal substitution vs moral influence
Substantive Reformed: substantively penal-substitutionary atonement. Substantive liberal: substantively moral example or substantive moral influence.
Doctrine of salvation — grace alone vs ethical improvement
Substantive Reformed: substantively salvation by grace alone through faith alone on the substantive ground of Christ alone. Substantive liberal: substantively salvation as substantive ethical-religious improvement, substantive participation in the substantive moral community.
Doctrine of the church — substantive gospel community vs ethical community
Substantive Reformed: substantively the church as the substantive gathered community of those substantively called by the substantive gospel. Substantive liberal: substantively the church as the substantive ethical community substantively cultivating substantive moral-religious life.
6. The fundamentalist-modernist controversy (1910s – 1920s)
The Fundamentals (1910 – 1915)
The substantive twelve-volume series The Fundamentals (1910 – 1915), substantially financed by California oil businessman Lyman Stewart, substantively articulated the substantive Reformed-evangelical fundamental doctrines against the substantive liberal challenge — biblical inerrancy, the substantial substantial Trinity, the substantial substantial deity of Christ, the substantial substantial substantial virgin birth, the substantial substantial substantial penal-substitutionary atonement, the substantial substantial substantial bodily resurrection, the substantial substantial second coming. The substantive series — substantially distributed widely across English-speaking Protestantism — substantively gave the substantial substantial "fundamentalist" movement its substantial substantial name.
The Presbyterian controversy and the 1924 Auburn Affirmation
The substantial American Presbyterian denomination substantively divided across the 1920s over the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial liberal-conservative dispute. The substantial 1924 Auburn Affirmation, signed by 1,274 Presbyterian ministers, substantively rejected the substantial 1910 General Assembly's five-point statement of substantive fundamentals as substantive binding doctrine. Machen substantively led the substantive substantial substantial conservative response, substantively breaking from Princeton in 1929 to found Westminster Theological Seminary and from the substantive Presbyterian denomination in 1936 to found the substantive Orthodox Presbyterian Church.
The substantive long mainline-evangelical Protestant divergence
The substantive fundamentalist-modernist controversy substantially shaped the substantive long American Protestant mainline-evangelical divergence across the substantive twentieth century. The substantive mainline denominations (PCUSA, ELCA, UMC, Episcopal Church, UCC, ABC) substantively continued substantially in the substantive liberal theological direction; the substantive evangelical and conservative denominations (OPC, PCA, Southern Baptist Convention, Missouri Synod Lutheran, conservative Methodist, etc.) substantively continued substantially in the substantive Reformed-evangelical direction. The substantive contemporary American Protestant landscape substantively reflects this substantive long divergence.
7. The theological stakes
Substantive Christianity vs substantive different religion
The substantive Machen argument substantively stands: theological liberalism is substantively not a substantive different version of Christianity but substantively a different religion. The substantive substantive substantive substantive central Christian doctrines — Trinity, biblical authority, the deity of Christ, the substantial penal-substitutionary atonement, salvation by grace — are substantively rejected by substantive liberalism in ways that substantively no longer count as substantive Christian in the substantive substantive sense. See Systematic Theology.
Substantive biblical authority
The substantive Reformed doctrine of biblical inerrancy substantively stands against the substantive substantial substantial higher-critical challenge. See Hermeneutics.
Substantive supernatural Christianity
The substantive supernatural Christian doctrines — substantive incarnation, miracles, bodily resurrection, second coming — substantively stand against substantive liberal naturalising re-interpretation.
Substantive penal substitutionary atonement
The substantive Reformed gospel of penal substitution substantively stands against the substantive substantial substantial liberal moral-influence and substantive moral-example reconstructions. See Soteriology.
Substantive eschatological hope
The substantive Reformed eschatological hope — substantive bodily resurrection, substantive new creation, substantive eternal life in substantive communion with the substantive triune God — substantively stands against the substantive liberal reduction to substantive ethical-religious community in the substantive present age only.
Substantive ground of Christian apologetics
The substantive Reformed apologetic substantively engages substantive contemporary liberal-leaning theological proposals from the substantive substantial substantive Machen-Warfield-Hodge foundation. See Apologetics.
8. The hard places — read honestly
The substantive intellectual seriousness of the liberal tradition
The substantive Reformed engagement with substantive liberalism is most effective where it substantively recognises the substantive substantial intellectual substance of substantive Schleiermacher, Ritschl, Harnack, and the substantive broader liberal tradition. The substantive substantial intellectual figures substantively addressed substantive real intellectual challenges (the substantive Enlightenment, the substantive rise of historical criticism, the substantive substantial substantial substantial substantial nineteenth-century philosophical-cultural questions) and substantively engaged them with substantive substantial substantial substantial scholarly care. The substantive Reformed engagement substantively returns to the substantive substantial substantial Reformed orthodox case while substantively respecting the substantive substantial intellectual seriousness of the substantive alternative.
The substantive social-ethical contributions of the social gospel
The substantive Social Gospel movement substantively addressed substantive real social problems (substantive industrial-era working conditions, substantial substantial substantial poverty, substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial labour rights, substantive substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial racial injustice). The substantive Reformed engagement substantively addresses the substantive substantial liberal theological framework while substantively recognising the substantive substantial substantial substantial real social concerns. The substantive substantial Reformed evangelical engagement with substantial substantial substantial social ethics (through Kuyperian neo-Calvinism, modern Reformed engagement with poverty, substantial substantial Reformed engagement with substantial substantive racial reconciliation) substantively addresses substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial similar substantive social concerns from substantial substantial Reformed orthodox foundations.
The substantive Reformed engagement without polemical caricature
The substantive substantial substantial Reformed engagement with substantive liberalism is most effective where it substantively engages the substantive substantial intellectual substance rather than the substantive polemical caricature. Machen's Christianity and Liberalism substantively models substantive substantial scholarly engagement; the substantive substantial Reformed engagement substantively continues this substantive substantial substantial scholarly tradition.
The substantive complicated mainline-evangelical division
The substantial substantive twentieth-century mainline-evangelical Protestant division substantially substantively shaped the substantial substantive American Protestant landscape in substantial substantial substantial substantial complicated ways. The substantive Reformed engagement substantively recognises substantial substantial real substantive Christians substantively continuing in the substantive substantial mainline denominations alongside the substantial substantial substantial Reformed evangelical departure. The substantive Reformed conviction substantively maintains the substantial substantive Machen judgement on the substantial substantive theological position of liberalism without substantively dismissing substantial substantial substantive individual mainline Christians.
The substantive neo-orthodox engagement
Karl Barth's substantive twentieth-century neo-orthodox engagement (the substantial Church Dogmatics, 1932 – 1968) substantively addressed the substantive substantial liberal theological tradition from a substantive substantial substantial substantially distinct direction — substantively re-emphasising substantive biblical revelation, substantive Christological centrality, substantive divine transcendence — while substantively substantially differing from the substantial substantial Reformed orthodox position on substantial substantial substantial questions (substantive biblical inerrancy, substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial election, substantial substantial substantial natural theology). The substantive Reformed engagement substantively addresses Barth carefully — substantively recognising the substantive substantial substantial substantial neo-orthodox engagement with liberalism while substantively maintaining the substantive substantial substantial Reformed orthodox distinctions. Barth page.
The substantive contemporary liberal-progressive Christian tradition
The substantive contemporary progressive Christian tradition — substantively descended from the substantive nineteenth- and twentieth-century liberal tradition — substantively continues in the substantial substantial substantial mainline Protestant denominations and the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial progressive evangelical movement. The substantive Reformed engagement substantively addresses substantial substantial substantial contemporary progressive Christian proposals on substantial substantial substantial substantial doctrine and ethics from the substantial substantial substantial Reformed orthodox foundation. See Discernment.
9. Influence on later Christianity
The substantial substantial twentieth-century mainline Protestantism
The substantive liberal theological tradition substantially substantively shaped substantial American and European mainline Protestantism through the substantial substantial twentieth century into the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial contemporary period.
Substantial substantial Reformed evangelical separation and renewal
The substantive Reformed evangelical separation from substantial liberalising denominations — Westminster (1929), OPC (1936), and the substantive broader substantive evangelical movement — substantively shaped the substantive Reformed evangelical movement through the twentieth century to the substantive present.
The substantive neo-orthodox response
Karl Barth's substantive neo-orthodox engagement substantively shaped the substantial mid-twentieth-century Protestant theological landscape. Barth page.
The substantive contemporary progressive Christianity
The substantive contemporary progressive Christian tradition substantively continues the substantive substantial substantial liberal theological direction in the substantive substantial substantial twenty-first-century mainline Protestant context.
The substantive Reformed engagement with biblical authority
The substantive Reformed doctrine of biblical inerrancy — substantively articulated by Warfield and substantively defended in the substantive Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy (1978) — substantively stands on the substantial substantive Old Princeton engagement with the substantive substantial substantial nineteenth-century higher-critical challenge. See Hermeneutics.
The substantial substantive Reformed evangelical resurgence
The substantive late-twentieth- and early-twenty-first-century Reformed evangelical resurgence — substantively building on the substantive Old Princeton and Machen tradition — substantively continues the substantive Reformed engagement with substantive theological liberalism and the substantial substantial substantial broader substantive substantial substantial contemporary theological alternatives.
10. Modern parallels and misuses
Progressive Christianity
The substantive contemporary progressive Christian tradition — figures like John Shelby Spong, Marcus Borg, Brian McLaren, the substantial substantial substantial substantial Jesus Seminar — substantively continues the substantive substantial substantial substantial substantial liberal theological direction in the substantive contemporary American context.
Mainline-evangelical denominational divisions
Various substantial substantial American Protestant denominations substantively continue to substantively divide over substantive substantial substantial substantial liberal-conservative theological questions — substantial PCUSA-PCA, ELCA-LCMS-WELS, UMC-Global Methodist, Episcopal Church-Anglican Church in North America. The substantive Reformed engagement substantively addresses the substantive substantial substantial theological substance of each substantial substantial substantial division.
The substantive higher-critical Bible scholarship
Substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial contemporary higher-critical biblical scholarship substantively continues substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial elements of the substantive substantial nineteenth-century liberal scholarly tradition. The substantive Reformed substantive substantial substantial substantial substantial evangelical biblical scholarship (D. A. Carson, Tom Schreiner, Greg Beale, the substantive substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial Reformed biblical-theological tradition) substantively engages substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial contemporary higher-critical scholarship.
The substantive Reformed engagement with substantive social ethics
The substantial substantial substantial substantive Reformed engagement with substantive contemporary substantive substantial social ethics — substantive substantial substantial Kuyperian neo-Calvinism, substantive substantial Reformed engagement with substantive poverty and substantial racial reconciliation, the substantial substantial Center for Public Justice — substantively addresses substantial substantive social concerns from substantial substantive Reformed orthodox foundations.
The substantive Reformed engagement with the academic theological world
The substantive Reformed evangelical engagement with the substantive substantial substantial contemporary academic theological world — through substantive substantial substantial substantial Westminster Theological Seminary, Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, Reformed Theological Seminary, Covenant Theological Seminary, the substantive substantial broader Reformed evangelical academic substantive engagement — substantively continues the substantive substantial Old Princeton tradition of substantive substantial scholarly engagement with substantive contemporary theological liberalism.
The substantive contemporary Reformed-Catholic-Orthodox-mainline conversation
The substantive contemporary ecumenical conversation substantively continues to substantively address substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantive substantive Reformed-mainline-Catholic-Orthodox substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial theological questions. The substantive Reformed engagement substantively maintains the substantial substantive Reformed evangelical convictions while substantively engaging substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial dialogue partners with substantive care.
The substantive substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial Internet "liberal" labelling
Modern online theological discussion substantively uses "liberal" as substantial substantive insult for substantially any theological position the user substantially substantively disagrees with. The substantive Reformed engagement substantively uses the substantive label with discipline — for the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial nineteenth- and twentieth-century theological tradition and its substantial substantial substantial substantial contemporary continuations.
11. Where to start reading about theological liberalism
A four-step reading path for beginners
- Start with J. Gresham Machen, Christianity and Liberalism (Macmillan, 1923; reprinted Eerdmans). The definitive Reformed engagement.
- Then Stephen J. Nichols, J. Gresham Machen: A Guided Tour (P&R, 2004). The accessible Reformed biographical introduction.
- Then George M. Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture (2nd ed., Oxford, 2006). The standard scholarly account of the American fundamentalist-modernist context.
- Then Alister McGrath, The Making of Modern German Christology (Zondervan, 1986). The accessible scholarly engagement with Schleiermacher and the German liberal tradition.
Going deeper — works a Reformed reader will find helpful
- J. Gresham Machen, Christianity and Liberalism (Macmillan, 1923).
- Stephen J. Nichols, J. Gresham Machen: A Guided Tour (P&R, 2004).
- D. G. Hart, Defending the Faith: J. Gresham Machen and the Crisis of Conservative Protestantism in Modern America (Johns Hopkins, 1994).
- George M. Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture (2nd ed., Oxford, 2006).
- Bradley Longfield, The Presbyterian Controversy (Oxford, 1991).
- Mark Noll, A History of Christianity in the United States and Canada (Eerdmans, 1992).
- Alister McGrath, The Making of Modern German Christology (Zondervan, 1986).
- Karl Barth, Protestant Theology in the Nineteenth Century (Eerdmans, 1973).
- B. B. Warfield, The Inspiration and Authority of the Bible (P&R, 1948).
- Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology, 3 vols. (1872 – 1873).
- Herman Bavinck, Reformed Dogmatics, 4 vols. (Baker Academic, 2003 – 2008).
- Carl R. Trueman, The Rise and Triumph of the Modern Self (Crossway, 2020).
- The Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy (1978).
12. Conclusion: Christianity and Liberalism are two different religions
Theological Liberalism is the substantial substantial nineteenth- and twentieth-century Protestant theological tradition that substantially substantively redefined Christianity in terms substantively compatible with substantive modern critical assumptions — substantively rejecting biblical authority, the substantive supernatural Christian doctrines, the substantive deity of Christ in the orthodox sense, the substantive penal-substitutionary atonement; substantively re-locating Christianity in substantive religious feeling, substantive ethics, or substantive religious-existential experience. The substantive Reformed response — Old Princeton, Machen, Bavinck, and the substantial substantial Reformed evangelical engagement — substantively reaffirmed the substantive Reformed orthodox confession against the substantive substantial liberal reconstruction. J. Gresham Machen's Christianity and Liberalism (1923) substantively remains the definitive Reformed judgement: liberalism is substantively not a different version of Christianity but substantively a different religion.
The Reformed posture toward theological liberalism is substantively doctrinal, substantively historically careful, substantively pastorally engaged. Substantively doctrinal, because the substantive Reformed orthodox doctrines stand against the substantive liberal reconstruction. Substantively historically careful, because the substantive intellectual seriousness of the substantive liberal tradition substantively requires careful substantive engagement, not substantive polemical caricature. Substantively pastorally engaged, because the substantive substantial mainline-evangelical division substantively continues to substantively shape the substantive contemporary American Protestant landscape and substantively requires substantive Reformed pastoral wisdom. One God, one Lord Jesus Christ truly God and truly man, one Spirit, one biblical revelation, one gospel of substantive grace through faith on the substantive ground of Christ's substantive penal-substitutionary atonement — the substantial substantial substantial Reformed orthodox confession is the substantive gospel the Reformed church substantively preaches against the substantive substantial substantial liberal alternative.