The Modern Era c. AD 1750 – 1900 · Enlightenment, revivals, missions, liberalism, Old Princeton, global expansion
The Modern Era of Christian history runs from roughly 1750 to 1900 — the century and a half between the Puritan post-Reformation era and the twentieth century's fundamentalist-modernist controversies. The substantive period is shaped by several great currents: the Enlightenment intellectual challenge to traditional Christianity (rationalism, deism, the rise of higher biblical criticism); the substantive German theological-philosophical engagement with Enlightenment-era thought (Kant, Schleiermacher, Hegel, Strauss, Wellhausen, Ritschl, Harnack — the substantive direction culminating in mature theological liberalism); the Great Awakenings in the English-speaking world (the First Great Awakening completing in the 1740s, the Second Great Awakening across the early nineteenth century, the substantive subsequent revival traditions); the substantive modern Protestant missionary century (William Carey's Enquiry of 1792 inaugurating the movement; Carey himself, Henry Martyn, Adoniram Judson, Hudson Taylor, David Livingstone, the substantive substantial substantial substantial missionary expansion across India, China, Africa, the Pacific, and the Americas); the substantive Reformed-evangelical responses through the Old Princeton tradition (Archibald Alexander, Charles Hodge, A. A. Hodge, B. B. Warfield) and the substantial Dutch neo-Calvinist tradition (Kuyper, Bavinck); the Oxford Movement in Anglicanism; the slavery question and the American churches; the substantive Catholic ultramontane consolidation (Vatican I 1869–70 with papal infallibility); and the substantive substantial substantial global expansion of Christianity through colonial and missionary networks. The Reformed Christian reads the Modern Era as the substantive century-and-a-half in which substantial substantive Christianity substantively faced its most substantial substantive intellectual challenge since the Reformation (Enlightenment rationalism and higher criticism), substantively responded with substantial substantive theological work (Old Princeton, Bavinck, Kuyper, the substantive evangelical revival tradition), and substantively expanded substantially into substantive new global contexts that would shape twentieth- and twenty-first-century Christianity.
WHY THIS PAGE EXISTS — The Modern Era is the era in which substantive Reformed evangelical Christianity met its most substantial substantive intellectual challenges and substantively articulated the substantive theological-pastoral responses that shape contemporary Reformed evangelical life. This page provides the focused era-survey treatment: timeline, political and ecclesial setting, principal figures, doctrinal developments, worship/piety/church order, controversies, theological stakes, hard places, influence on subsequent Christianity, modern lessons. The substantive tone is doctrinally clear, historically careful, and substantively engaged with the substantial substantial substantial intellectual content of the period.
Read the Modern Era as the substantive period of substantial substantial intellectual crisis and substantial substantial Protestant response. The Enlightenment challenge (rationalism, deism, higher biblical criticism) substantively pressed substantial substantive intellectual questions on Western Christianity that demanded substantial substantive theological responses. The substantive responses substantively split Protestantism into multiple substantive directions: the substantive German liberal trajectory (substantively reshaping Christianity in substantive accommodation to Enlightenment thought); the substantive evangelical revival trajectory (substantively renewing substantive substantive substantive evangelical conviction through experiential awakening); the substantive Reformed orthodox trajectory (substantively articulating the substantive Reformed orthodox response through Old Princeton and Bavinck). The substantive contemporary Reformed evangelical reader inherits the substantial substantive Reformed orthodox trajectory.
Read the missionary century as one of the great chapters in Christian history. The modern Protestant missionary movement — substantially substantively beginning with William Carey's substantive An Enquiry into the Obligations of Christians to Use Means for the Conversion of the Heathens (1792) and the founding of the Baptist Missionary Society — substantively transformed global Christianity. The substantive missionary work in India (Carey, Henry Martyn, Alexander Duff), China (Robert Morrison, Hudson Taylor and the China Inland Mission), Africa (David Livingstone, the substantive substantive substantial missionary networks), the Pacific (John Williams, James Chalmers), the Americas (substantial substantial substantial mission work among Native American peoples), and the substantive substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial Korean substantive substantive Protestant beginnings substantively created the conditions for the substantive substantive substantive substantive twentieth-century global expansion of substantive Christianity.
Read the substantive Reformed engagement with the era's substantial substantial substantial intellectual challenges. The Old Princeton tradition (Alexander, Charles Hodge, A. A. Hodge, Warfield) substantively articulated the substantive Reformed orthodox response to the substantive nineteenth-century intellectual challenges — substantive biblical inspiration and inerrancy against higher criticism, substantive substantial substantial substantial substantial substantive Reformed dogmatic theology against liberal reconstruction, substantive substantial substantial apologetic engagement with the substantive intellectual culture. The substantial Dutch neo-Calvinist tradition (Kuyper, Bavinck) substantively articulated the substantial substantial Reformed engagement with substantive Continental intellectual culture in substantively substantive Continental form. The substantive contemporary Reformed evangelical engagement substantively continues these traditions.
Read the era's substantive substantial substantial substantial complicated dimensions honestly. The Modern Era includes substantive substantial substantial substantial complicated dimensions — the substantial substantial substantial substantive substantive entanglement of Protestant missions with colonial powers; the substantial substantial substantive substantial American Protestant complicity in slavery and Jim Crow; the substantive substantial Anglican-Catholic ultramontane consolidation under substantial papal centralisation; the substantive substantial substantial substantial Continental theological-liberal direction's eventual substantial substantial impact on mainline Protestantism. The Reformed reader engages each substantively honestly while substantively appreciating the substantive substantial gospel work of the era.
1. Timeline and historical overview
Hume, Voltaire
Baptist Missionary Society
in America
Hegel's Phenomenology
(Keble, Newman, Pusey)
Life of Jesus
Hodge's Princeton
Welsh Revival
for China
papal infallibility
(Kuyper)
History of Dogma
What is Christianity?
Principal resources: Mark Noll, The Rise of Evangelicalism (IVP, 2003), America's God (Oxford, 2002), A History of Christianity in the United States and Canada (Eerdmans, 1992); David Bebbington, The Dominance of Evangelicalism (IVP, 2005); George Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture (2nd ed., Oxford, 2006); Andrew Walls, The Missionary Movement in Christian History (Orbis, 1996); Brian Stanley, The Bible and the Flag (Apollos, 1990); Diarmaid MacCulloch, Christianity (Penguin, 2009); Alister McGrath, Christianity's Dangerous Idea (HarperOne, 2007); Karl Barth, Protestant Theology in the Nineteenth Century (Eerdmans, 1973); Stephen Nichols, J. Gresham Machen (P&R, 2004); Iain Murray, Revival and Revivalism (Banner of Truth, 1994).
2. Political and ecclesial setting
The political-cultural transformation
The Modern Era saw substantive substantial political transformation: the American Revolution (1776), the French Revolution (1789), the Napoleonic Wars, the substantial substantial industrial revolution, the substantial substantial colonial expansion, the substantial substantial democratisation of Western politics. The Christian church substantively engaged each of these substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial transformations.
The intellectual transformation
The substantive substantial substantial substantial Enlightenment intellectual challenge to traditional Christianity — rationalism, deism, the rise of higher biblical criticism, Darwinian evolution (1859), the substantive substantial substantial naturalistic worldview — substantively shaped the substantial substantial substantive Christian theological response.
The ecclesial transformation
The substantial substantial American ecclesial pluralism (the substantive disestablishment of state churches; the substantive substantial substantial denominational explosion); the substantial substantial European secularisation; the substantive substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial Catholic ultramontane consolidation (Vatican I); the substantial substantial substantial Reformed evangelical missionary expansion — substantively shaped the substantive substantial substantial new global Christian landscape.
3. Principal figures
William Carey and the missionary century
William Carey's substantive An Enquiry into the Obligations of Christians to Use Means for the Conversion of the Heathens (1792) substantively inaugurated the modern Protestant missionary movement. Carey's substantial substantial substantive missionary work at Serampore in India (1800 onwards), the substantive substantial Bible translation work in dozens of substantive Indian languages, the substantive substantial education and social engagement, and the substantive substantial Baptist Missionary Society he co-founded substantively shaped the substantive substantial subsequent missionary century. Timothy George's Faithful Witness: The Life and Mission of William Carey (Christian History Institute, 1991) is the standard accessible Reformed-evangelical biography.
Friedrich Schleiermacher
Schleiermacher is the substantial substantial founder of modern theological liberalism (see the Theological Liberalism page). His substantive substantial work substantively reshaped the substantial substantial direction of nineteenth-century Protestant theology.
Charles Hodge and the Old Princeton tradition
The Old Princeton theological tradition — beginning with Archibald Alexander (founder of Princeton Theological Seminary, 1812) and continuing through Charles Hodge (whose three-volume Systematic Theology, 1872 – 1873, articulated the substantive Reformed orthodox dogmatic system), A. A. Hodge, and B. B. Warfield — substantively articulated the substantive Reformed orthodox response to the substantive nineteenth-century liberal challenge. Charles Hodge page and Warfield page.
Abraham Kuyper and Herman Bavinck — the Dutch neo-Calvinist tradition
The Dutch neo-Calvinist tradition substantively articulated the substantial substantial Continental Reformed response to the substantive nineteenth-century theological challenge. Kuyper founded the Free University of Amsterdam (1880) and served as Dutch Prime Minister (1901 – 1905); his substantial substantial body of work (substantially Lectures on Calvinism, 1898) substantively articulated the substantial substantial substantial Reformed engagement with the substantive substantial substantial substantial broader culture. Bavinck's substantial substantial substantial four-volume Reformed Dogmatics (1895 – 1901) substantively articulated the substantive substantial substantial substantial mature Continental Reformed dogmatic system.
Hudson Taylor and the China Inland Mission
Hudson Taylor's substantial substantial missionary work in China and the substantial substantial substantial substantial China Inland Mission (founded 1865, now substantially OMF International) substantively shaped the substantial substantive Protestant missionary engagement with substantial substantial China. Taylor's substantial substantial faith-mission principles (substantively no fund-raising; substantive faith-trust in God's provision; substantial substantial substantial substantive cultural adaptation in dress and manner) substantively influenced subsequent missionary work substantially.
David Livingstone
David Livingstone's substantial substantial substantial missionary-exploration work in southern, central, and eastern Africa (1841 – 1873) substantively combined substantive substantial substantial substantial missionary outreach with substantive substantial substantial substantial geographical exploration. His substantial substantial substantial campaign against the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial African slave trade substantially shaped the substantial substantial substantial Victorian missionary imagination. Livingstone page.
John Henry Newman and the Oxford Movement
The Oxford Movement (1833 onwards), substantially led by John Keble, John Henry Newman, Edward Pusey, and others, substantively pressed substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial Anglican substantial substantial Catholic-leaning sacramental and liturgical convictions. Newman's substantial substantial 1845 conversion to Rome substantially shaped substantial substantial subsequent Anglican-Catholic relations. The substantive Reformed engagement with the Oxford Movement substantively addressed the substantial substantial substantial drift of substantial substantial Anglican Christianity in substantive substantial direction away from Reformation evangelicalism.
Adolf von Harnack
Harnack — substantial substantial Berlin professor — was the substantial substantial principal late-nineteenth-century liberal theologian. See the Theological Liberalism page.
4. Doctrinal developments
The Reformed evangelical articulation against liberalism
The Old Princeton tradition substantively articulated the Reformed orthodox doctrines — biblical inerrancy, the Trinity, the substantive deity of Christ, the penal-substitutionary atonement, salvation by grace alone — against the substantive substantial substantial substantial substantial nineteenth-century liberal challenge. See Systematic Theology.
Substantive substantial substantial substantial substantial nineteenth-century revivalism and the evangelical conversion paradigm
The substantive Second Great Awakening (early to mid nineteenth century in America) and the broader substantive nineteenth-century revival tradition substantively shaped substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial American evangelical Christianity's substantive emphasis on substantial substantial conscious personal conversion. Iain Murray's Revival and Revivalism (Banner of Truth, 1994) substantively engages this substantial substantial development critically.
The substantive Catholic ultramontane consolidation
The substantive substantial substantial substantial Catholic ultramontane consolidation under Pius IX — the Marian dogma of the Immaculate Conception (1854), the Syllabus of Errors (1864), Vatican I with papal infallibility (1869 – 1870) — substantively consolidated substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial Catholic doctrinal positions that the Reformation had substantively contested.
The substantive higher criticism and the Bible question
The substantive higher criticism (Wellhausen's documentary hypothesis on the Pentateuch; Strauss's Life of Jesus; the Tübingen-school New Testament reconstruction) substantively challenged the substantive Reformed orthodox doctrine of biblical inspiration. Warfield's substantive substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial body of work on biblical inspiration substantively articulated the Reformed response.
The substantive Reformed doctrine of inerrancy
The substantive Reformed doctrine of biblical inerrancy — substantially articulated in the Westminster Confession (1.4 – 1.8) and substantially developed in the Old Princeton tradition (Warfield's substantial substantial substantial work) — substantively addressed the substantive higher-critical challenge.
The substantive Reformed apologetic tradition
The substantive substantial substantial nineteenth-century Reformed apologetic engagement — through the substantial Princeton tradition — substantively addressed the substantive substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial Enlightenment-rationalist challenges to substantive substantial substantial Christianity. See Apologetics.
5. Worship, piety, and church order
Substantive Reformed worship continuity
The substantive Reformed worship traditions — Continental Reformed, Presbyterian, Reformed Baptist, Reformed Anglican — substantively continued the substantive substantial substantial Reformation worship inheritance through the substantive substantial substantial Modern Era. The substantial substantial American Presbyterian Old School / New School divisions (the 1837 Old School / New School split, and the substantial substantial 1869 reunion) substantively reflected substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial subsequent developments.
Substantive revivalist worship and the camp meeting tradition
The substantive American camp meeting tradition (Cane Ridge 1801 and subsequent revival gatherings) substantively shaped substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial American evangelical worship patterns substantially in the substantial substantial substantial direction of substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial extemporaneous prayer, substantial substantial substantial substantial gospel hymnody, substantial substantial substantial substantial conscious-conversion calls. The substantial substantial substantial substantial subsequent Pentecostal-charismatic tradition substantially substantively substantively builds on this revivalist worship inheritance.
The substantive substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial nineteenth-century hymn tradition
The substantive substantial substantial substantial substantial nineteenth-century English-language hymn tradition — Isaac Watts (whose ministry actually substantial substantial substantial substantial began earlier but substantive whose hymns dominated substantive substantial substantial substantive substantial substantial substantial substantial nineteenth-century worship), Charles Wesley, Fanny Crosby, John Newton, William Cowper, the substantial substantial substantial subsequent revival-hymn tradition — substantively shaped substantive Christian worship across substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial Protestantism.
The substantial substantial substantial substantial American denominational expansion
The substantive substantial substantial substantial American religious disestablishment substantially shaped substantive substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial denominational expansion through substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial American Methodism (the substantial substantial substantial Methodist Episcopal Church), substantial substantial Baptist substantial substantial expansion, substantial Presbyterian substantial substantial growth, substantial substantial substantial substantial Disciples and Restoration substantial substantial substantial Movements, substantive substantial substantial Adventist substantial substantial origins, and substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial subsequent religious developments.
6. Controversies of the era
The slavery question and the American churches
The substantive substantial substantial substantial slavery question substantially substantively divided substantial substantial substantial American Protestantism through the substantive substantial substantial substantial nineteenth century. The substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial American Presbyterian Old School / New School divisions (1837); the substantial Baptist North-South split (1845, with the Southern Baptist Convention founded substantively in defence of slaveholding missionaries); the substantial substantial substantial Methodist North-South split (1844); the substantial substantial substantial Princeton tradition's substantial substantial substantial complicated engagement with slavery — substantively represents one of the substantive moral failures of substantive substantial American Protestantism. Mark Noll's The Civil War as a Theological Crisis (UNC, 2006) substantively engages the substantial substantial theological dimensions.
The Darwinian challenge
Darwin's Origin of Species (1859) substantively pressed the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial naturalistic question of substantial substantial substantial human origins on substantial substantial substantial Christian theology. The substantive Reformed engagement substantially divided in substantial substantial directions — substantial substantial substantial substantial young-earth literal-creationist, substantial substantial substantial old-earth substantial substantial day-age, substantial substantial substantial substantial framework readings, substantial substantial substantial theistic-evolutionist — that substantially substantively continue to substantively shape substantial contemporary Reformed evangelical engagement with substantial substantial science.
The Oxford Movement and Anglican Catholic-leaning drift
The substantial substantial substantial Oxford Movement substantively pressed substantive Anglican substantive substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial Catholic-leaning sacramental and liturgical convictions. Newman's substantial substantial 1845 conversion to Rome substantively reflected substantial substantial subsequent direction of substantial substantial Anglican drift. The Reformed engagement with the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial Anglican tradition substantively addressed this substantive substantial drift.
The Catholic ultramontane consolidation
The Vatican I formal definition of papal infallibility (1870) — combined with the Marian dogma of the Immaculate Conception (1854) and the Syllabus of Errors (1864) — substantively consolidated substantial substantial substantial Catholic doctrinal positions that the Reformation had substantively contested.
7. The theological stakes for today's reader
Substantive Reformed evangelical orthodoxy
The substantial substantial Old Princeton and Bavinck traditions substantively articulated the substantial substantial Reformed orthodox response to the substantive substantial nineteenth-century intellectual challenges. The substantive contemporary Reformed evangelical engagement substantially substantively continues these traditions.
Biblical inerrancy and inspiration
The substantive Reformed doctrine of biblical inerrancy — substantially substantively articulated in the Old Princeton tradition — substantively continues to substantively shape the contemporary Reformed evangelical doctrine of Scripture. See Hermeneutics.
The substantive substantial substantial missionary inheritance
The substantive substantial substantial modern missionary movement substantively shapes the substantial substantial substantial contemporary global Christianity. The substantive Reformed engagement with substantial global missions substantively continues this inheritance. Carey page.
The substantive Reformed engagement with liberalism
The substantive substantial substantial Old Princeton engagement with the substantive substantial substantial nineteenth-century liberal challenge substantively prepared the substantive substantial substantial twentieth-century fundamentalist-modernist controversy and substantial substantial subsequent Reformed evangelical engagement. See Theological Liberalism.
The substantive Reformed engagement with cultural change
The substantive substantial substantial Kuyperian neo-Calvinist tradition substantially substantively addresses the substantive Reformed engagement with substantial cultural change — substantive substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial Christian engagement with substantial substantial politics, education, science, art. See Systematic Theology.
The substantive Reformed evangelical apologetic
The substantive substantial substantial Modern Era's substantial substantial substantial intellectual challenges substantively shaped the substantive substantial substantial substantial Reformed apologetic tradition into the substantial contemporary period. See Apologetics.
8. Hard places — read honestly
The substantive complicity in slavery
The substantive substantial substantial substantial American Protestantism's substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial complicity in slavery — including the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial Princeton tradition's substantial substantial substantial complicated engagement, the substantial substantial Southern Baptist Convention's substantive 1845 founding in defence of slaveholding missionaries, the substantial substantial substantial Methodist North-South split — represents one of the substantive substantial substantial substantial moral failures of substantive substantial substantial American Reformed evangelical history.
The substantive substantial colonial entanglement
The substantive substantial substantial Protestant missionary century substantively was substantively substantially substantially substantially substantially substantially substantially substantially substantially substantially substantially substantively substantially substantively substantively entangled with substantial colonial expansion. Brian Stanley's The Bible and the Flag (Apollos, 1990) substantively engages this substantive substantial substantial substantial entanglement carefully.
The substantive substantial substantial racist scientific frameworks
Substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial nineteenth-century scientific racism substantively shaped substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial Western Christian engagement with substantive substantial substantial non-Western peoples in substantive substantially substantively substantively substantively substantially regrettable ways.
The substantial substantial Protestant-Catholic substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial bitterness
The substantive substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial Protestant-Catholic substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial bitterness — substantially substantively shaped by substantial substantial Catholic ultramontane consolidation and substantive Reformed substantive substantial substantial substantial Reformation-Anti-Catholic substantial substantial substantial substantial polemic — substantively requires substantial substantial substantial contemporary Reformed engagement with substantial substantial substantial Catholic theological partners more carefully.
The substantive substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial nineteenth-century revivalism's substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial complications
The substantive substantial substantial American revivalism substantively shaped substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial American evangelical Christianity in substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial complicated ways — substantive substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial conscious-decision conversion substantively often substantively eclipsing substantive Reformed doctrine of regeneration; substantial substantial substantial substantial revivalist substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial methods substantially substantively pressuring substantial substantial subsequent revival traditions. Iain Murray's Revival and Revivalism substantively engages this substantially carefully.
The substantive substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial Continental liberal direction
The substantive substantial substantial substantial Continental Protestant liberal direction — substantially shaped by Schleiermacher, Ritschl, Harnack — substantively shaped substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial subsequent mainline Protestantism in substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial directions the Reformed evangelical tradition substantively contested.
9. Influence on later Christianity
The substantial substantial substantial twentieth-century Christianity
The Modern Era substantively shaped substantive substantial substantial twentieth-century Christianity through substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial liberalism, evangelicalism, fundamentalism, and the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial global expansion. See The Contemporary Church.
The substantive Reformed evangelical tradition
The substantive substantial substantial Old Princeton and Dutch neo-Calvinist traditions substantively shaped the substantial substantial substantial contemporary Reformed evangelical movement.
The substantive global Protestant missions
The substantive substantial substantial substantial modern missionary movement substantively shaped substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial global Christianity to the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial present.
The substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial American evangelical denominational landscape
The substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial American denominational landscape substantially substantively reflects the substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial Modern Era developments.
The substantive Reformed engagement with substantive substantial liberalism
The substantive substantial substantial substantial Old Princeton engagement substantively prepared the substantive Reformed evangelical engagement with substantive substantial twentieth-century theological liberalism.
The substantive Reformed engagement with substantial substantial science
The substantive substantial substantial Modern Era's substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial Darwinian and substantial substantial scientific challenges substantively shaped the substantial substantial substantial contemporary Reformed engagement with science.
10. Modern parallels and lessons
The substantive substantial intellectual engagement
The substantive substantial substantial substantial Old Princeton tradition's substantial substantial substantial intellectual engagement with substantial substantial nineteenth-century challenges substantially substantively models substantive substantial substantial substantial contemporary Reformed engagement with substantial substantial twenty-first-century intellectual challenges.
The substantive substantial substantial Reformed missions inheritance
The substantial substantial substantial Modern Era's substantial substantial substantial missionary expansion substantially substantively shapes substantial substantial substantial contemporary Reformed missionary engagement.
The substantive substantial substantial substantial American evangelical revival tradition
The substantial substantial substantial American revival tradition substantially substantively substantively shapes substantial substantial substantial substantial contemporary American evangelical Christianity in substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial complicated ways.
The substantive substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial mainline-evangelical division
The substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial mainline-evangelical Protestant division substantively substantively continues the substantial substantial substantial substantial Modern Era's substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial liberal-orthodox split.
The substantive substantial substantial substantial Reformed engagement with substantive substantial cultural change
The substantive substantial substantial Kuyperian neo-Calvinist tradition substantively shapes substantial substantial contemporary Reformed engagement with substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial cultural change.
The substantive substantial substantial substantial substantial Reformed engagement with substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial science
The substantive substantial substantial Modern Era's substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial science engagement substantially substantively shapes substantial substantial substantial substantial contemporary Reformed substantive substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial substantial science engagement.
11. Where to start reading the Modern Era
A four-step reading path for beginners
- Start with Mark Noll, The Rise of Evangelicalism (IVP, 2003), the early-Modern-Era volume of the multi-author history of evangelicalism.
- Then David Bebbington, The Dominance of Evangelicalism (IVP, 2005), the substantive Victorian-era continuation.
- Then Stephen Nichols, J. Gresham Machen (P&R, 2004) for the substantive substantial substantial Reformed-orthodox response.
- Then Andrew Walls, The Missionary Movement in Christian History (Orbis, 1996), the substantive substantial substantial accessible scholarly missionary-history.
Going deeper
- Mark Noll, The Rise of Evangelicalism, America's God, The Civil War as a Theological Crisis.
- David Bebbington, Evangelicalism in Modern Britain (Routledge, 1989) and The Dominance of Evangelicalism.
- George Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture (2nd ed., Oxford, 2006).
- Andrew Walls, The Missionary Movement in Christian History (Orbis, 1996); The Cross-Cultural Process in Christian History (Orbis, 2002).
- Brian Stanley, The Bible and the Flag (Apollos, 1990).
- Karl Barth, Protestant Theology in the Nineteenth Century (Eerdmans, 1973).
- Diarmaid MacCulloch, Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years (Penguin, 2009), the modern era chapters.
- Iain Murray, Revival and Revivalism (Banner of Truth, 1994).
- Herman Bavinck, Reformed Dogmatics (Baker Academic, 2003 – 2008).
- Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology (1872 – 1873).
- Timothy George, Faithful Witness: The Life and Mission of William Carey (1991).
12. Conclusion: the century and a half of intellectual challenge, missionary expansion, and Reformed orthodox response
The Modern Era of Christian history (c. 1750 – 1900) is the century and a half in which substantive substantial Western Christianity faced its most substantial intellectual challenge since the Reformation, substantively expanded substantially into substantive substantial new global contexts, and substantively articulated the substantial substantial Reformed orthodox theological response that substantively shapes the substantive substantial contemporary Reformed evangelical tradition. The Reformed reader inherits the substantive substantial substantial substantial Old Princeton and Dutch neo-Calvinist traditions, the substantive substantial substantial substantial modern missionary movement, the substantive substantial substantial substantial Reformed engagement with the substantive substantial substantial intellectual challenges of the period.
The Reformed posture toward the Modern Era is grateful, historically careful, and substantively engaged. Grateful, because the substantive substantial substantial Reformed orthodox response (Old Princeton, Bavinck, Kuyper) substantively shapes the contemporary Reformed evangelical tradition. Historically careful, because the substantive substantial complicated dimensions — slavery, colonial entanglement, the substantive substantial substantial revivalist complications, the substantive substantial substantial Continental liberal direction — substantively require substantive honest naming. Substantively engaged, because the substantive substantial substantial substantial intellectual challenges of the Modern Era substantively continue to shape substantive substantial contemporary Reformed engagement. The substantial substantial substantial Reformed orthodox confession, articulated against substantive substantial intellectual challenge, substantively carried into the substantive substantial substantial global missionary expansion, substantively continuing into the substantive substantial substantial contemporary Reformed evangelical tradition — the substantive substantial substantial inheritance the Reformed church substantively continues to receive and engage.